FOLIO-PLUS-MED Biochemistry

Structure, properties, and classification of the 20 standard amino acids based on side chain properties, charge, and metabolic fate.

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary protein structures, folding, stability, and structure-function relationships.

Structure, function, oxygen binding kinetics, cooperativity, Bohr effect, and clinical significance of oxygen transport proteins.

Structure and functions of polysaccharides, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and glycosaminoglycans in biological systems.

Phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids, eicosanoids, and their roles in membrane structure and cellular signaling.

Water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins, their coenzyme forms, biochemical functions, and deficiency disorders.

Ten-step pathway for glucose breakdown, enzymes, regulation, energy yield, and connections to other metabolic pathways.

Synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, key enzymes, regulation, and coordination with glycolysis.

Krebs cycle reactions, enzymes, energy production, amphibolic nature, and anaplerotic reactions.

Mitochondrial electron transport, proton gradient generation, oxidative phosphorylation, and ATP synthesis.

Oxidative and non-oxidative phases, NADPH production, ribose synthesis, and connections to glycolysis.

Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis), regulation, and storage disorders.

Alternative glucose oxidation pathway for glucuronic acid production, vitamin C synthesis, and detoxification.

Transamination, deamination, urea cycle, and metabolic fates of carbon skeletons from amino acids.

Energy transformations in biological systems, ATP as energy currency, and thermodynamic principles in metabolism.

Oxidation-reduction, group transfer, hydrolysis, elimination, isomerization, and ligation reactions in biochemistry.

ATP hydrolysis, phosphoryl transfer potential, energy coupling, and high-energy phosphate compounds.

Redox reactions in metabolism, electron carriers (NAD+, FAD), and reduction potentials in biological systems.

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, and regulation of this key metabolic bridge.

Lactate recycling between muscles and liver during anaerobic exercise and its metabolic significance.

Alternative glycolytic pathway in erythrocytes producing 2,3-BPG and regulating oxygen affinity of hemoglobin.

Hepatic detoxification of ammonia, urea synthesis, regulation, and inherited disorders of the cycle.

Overview of lipid digestion, absorption, transport, and integration with carbohydrate metabolism.

Synthesis (lipogenesis) and breakdown (lipolysis) of triglycerides, hormonal regulation, and storage.

Beta-oxidation pathway, activation, transport into mitochondria, and energy yield from fatty acid breakdown.

Ketogenesis, ketolysis, physiological and pathological ketosis, and ketone bodies as alternative fuel.

Integrated view of metabolic pathways, regulatory nodes, and cross-talk between carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism.

Cholesterol synthesis (HMG-CoA reductase pathway), regulation, transport, and conversion to steroid hormones.

Chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL metabolism, reverse cholesterol transport, and dyslipidemias.